pxt-calliope/docs/js/classes.md

# Classes

Traditional JavaScript focuses on functions and prototype-based inheritance as the basic means of building up reusable components, 
but this may feel a bit awkward to programmers more comfortable with an object-oriented approach, where classes inherit functionality 
and objects are built from these classes.

Starting with ECMAScript 2015, also known as ECMAScript 6, JavaScript programmers will be able to build their applications using 
this object-oriented class-based approach. TypeScript, allows you to use these techniques.

Let's take a look at a simple class-based example:

```typescript
class Greeter {
    greeting: string;
    constructor(message: string) {
        this.greeting = message;
    }
    greet() {
        return "Hello, " + this.greeting;
    }
}

let greeter = new Greeter("world");
```

We declare a new class `Greeter`. This class has three members: a property called `greeting`, a constructor, and a method `greet`.

You'll notice that in the class when we refer to one of the members of the class we prepend `this.`.
This denotes that it's a member access.

In the last line we construct an instance of the `Greeter` class using `new`.
This calls into the constructor we defined earlier, creating a new object with the `Greeter` shape, and running the constructor to initialize it.

# Inheritance

In TypeScript, we can use common object-oriented patterns.
Of course, one of the most fundamental patterns in class-based programming is being able to extend existing classes to create new ones using inheritance.

Let's take a look at an example:

```typescript-ignore
class Animal {
    name: string;
    constructor(theName: string) { this.name = theName; }
    move(distanceInMeters: number = 0) {
        console.log(`${this.name} moved ${distanceInMeters}m.`);
    }
}

class Snake extends Animal {
    constructor(name: string) { super(name); }
    move(distanceInMeters = 5) {
        console.log("Slithering...");
        super.move(distanceInMeters);
    }
}

class Horse extends Animal {
    constructor(name: string) { super(name); }
    move(distanceInMeters = 45) {
        console.log("Galloping...");
        super.move(distanceInMeters);
    }
}

let sam = new Snake("Sammy the Python");
let tom: Animal = new Horse("Tommy the Palomino");

sam.move();
tom.move(34);
```

This example covers quite a few of the inheritance features in TypeScript that are common to other languages.
Here we see the `extends` keywords used to create a subclass. 
You can see this where `Horse` and `Snake` subclass the base class `Animal` and gain access to its features.

Derived classes that contain constructor functions must call `super()` which will execute the constructor function on the base class.

The example also shows how to override methods in the base class with methods that are specialized for the subclass.
Here both `Snake` and `Horse` create a `move` method that overrides the `move` from `Animal`, giving it functionality specific to each class.
Note that even though `tom` is declared as an `Animal`, since its value is a `Horse`, when `tom.move(34)` calls the overriding method in `Horse`:

```Text
Slithering...
Sammy the Python moved 5m.
Galloping...
Tommy the Palomino moved 34m.
```

# Public, private, and protected modifiers

## Public by default

In our examples, we've been able to freely access the members that we declared throughout our programs.
If you're familiar with classes in other languages, you may have noticed in the above examples 
we haven't had to use the word `public` to accomplish this; for instance, 
C# requires that each member be explicitly labeled `public` to be visible.
In TypeScript, each member is `public` by default.

You may still mark a member `public` explicitly.
We could have written the `Animal` class from the previous section in the following way:

```typescript-ignore
class Animal {
    public name: string;
    public constructor(theName: string) { this.name = theName; }
    public move(distanceInMeters: number) {
        console.log(`${this.name} moved ${distanceInMeters}m.`);
    }
}
```

## Understanding `private`

When a member is marked `private`, it cannot be accessed from outside of its containing class. For example:

```typescript-ignore
class Animal {
    private name: string;
    constructor(theName: string) { this.name = theName; }
}

new Animal("Cat").name; // Error: 'name' is private;
```

TypeScript is a structural type system.
When we compare two different types, regardless of where they came from, if the types of all members are compatible, then we say the types themselves are compatible.

However, when comparing types that have `private` and `protected` members, we treat these types differently.
For two types to be considered compatible, if one of them has a `private` member, 
then the other must have a `private` member that originated in the same declaration.
The same applies to `protected` members.

Let's look at an example to better see how this plays out in practice:

```typescript-ignore
class Animal {
    private name: string;
    constructor(theName: string) { this.name = theName; }
}

class Rhino extends Animal {
    constructor() { super("Rhino"); }
}

class Employee {
    private name: string;
    constructor(theName: string) { this.name = theName; }
}

let animal = new Animal("Goat");
let rhino = new Rhino();
let employee = new Employee("Bob");

animal = rhino;
animal = employee; // Error: 'Animal' and 'Employee' are not compatible
```

In this example, we have an `Animal` and a `Rhino`, with `Rhino` being a subclass of `Animal`.
We also have a new class `Employee` that looks identical to `Animal` in terms of shape.
We create some instances of these classes and then try to assign them to each other to see what will happen.
Because `Animal` and `Rhino` share the `private` side of their shape from the same declaration of 
`private name: string` in `Animal`, they are compatible. However, this is not the case for `Employee`.
When we try to assign from an `Employee` to `Animal` we get an error that these types are not compatible.
Even though `Employee` also has a `private` member called `name`, it's not the one we declared in `Animal`.

## Understanding `protected`

The `protected` modifier acts much like the `private` modifier with the exception that members 
declared `protected` can also be accessed by instances of deriving classes. For example,

```typescript-ignore
class Person {
    protected name: string;
    constructor(name: string) { this.name = name; }
}

class Employee extends Person {
    private department: string;

    constructor(name: string, department: string) {
        super(name);
        this.department = department;
    }

    public getElevatorPitch() {
        return `Hello, my name is ${this.name} and I work in ${this.department}.`;
    }
}

let howard = new Employee("Howard", "Sales");
console.log(howard.getElevatorPitch());
console.log(howard.name); // error
```

Notice that while we can't use `name` from outside of `Person`, 
we can still use it from within an instance method of `Employee` because `Employee` derives from `Person`.

A constructor may also be marked `protected`.
This means that the class cannot be instantiated outside of its containing class, but can be extended. For example,

```typescript-ignore
class Person {
    protected name: string;
    protected constructor(theName: string) { this.name = theName; }
}

// Employee can extend Person
class Employee extends Person {
    private department: string;

    constructor(name: string, department: string) {
        super(name);
        this.department = department;
    }

    public getElevatorPitch() {
        return `Hello, my name is ${this.name} and I work in ${this.department}.`;
    }
}

let howard = new Employee("Howard", "Sales");
let john = new Person("John"); // Error: The 'Person' constructor is protected
```

# Readonly modifier

You can make properties readonly by using the `readonly` keyword.
Readonly properties must be initialized at their declaration or in the constructor.

```typescript-ignore
class Octopus {
    readonly name: string;
    readonly numberOfLegs: number = 8;
    constructor (theName: string) {
        this.name = theName;
    }
}
let dad = new Octopus("Man with the 8 strong legs");
dad.name = "Man with the 3-piece suit"; // error! name is readonly.
```

## Parameter properties

In our last example, we had to declare a readonly member `name` and a constructor parameter `theName` in the `Octopus` class, and we then immediately set `name` to `theName`.
This turns out to be a very common practice.
*Parameter properties* let you create and initialize a member in one place.
Here's a further revision of the previous `Octopus` class using a parameter property:

```typescript-ignore
class Octopus {
    readonly numberOfLegs: number = 8;
    constructor(readonly name: string) {
    }
}
```

Notice how we dropped `theName` altogether and just use the shortened `readonly name: string` parameter on the constructor to create and initialize the `name` member.
We've consolidated the declarations and assignment into one location.

Parameter properties are declared by prefixing a constructor parameter with an accessibility modifier or `readonly`, or both.
Using `private` for a parameter property declares and initializes a private member; likewise, the same is done for `public`, `protected`, and `readonly`.